TecH InFo: 2013

So first insert the installation media into the computer and boot from it. Further steps are as mentioned below. Please note that the only different between the steps that follow from those mentioned in the "installing Ubuntu on a Machine with No OS" are those which are related to partitioning. We won't repeat them here in detail but only refer to the previous one (with a brief inline description of the step).

Step 1: Choose your language. This step is the same as Step 1 of procedure for Ubuntu installation without an OS.

Step 2: On the next screen, ubiquity will recommend system requirements and tell you whether your system meets them all or not. It basically shows you the following requirements:

4.4 GB disk space - This is perhaps the only stringent requirement by Ubuntu. You should make sure that your hard disk has at least that much space. Of course the bigger, the better.
Is connected to power source - This is not a very hardcore requirement. All Ubuntu wants to say here is: "please ensure power supply is not turned off when installing".
Is connected to internet - Although this too is not necessity, Ubuntu could use your internet connection to download updates and extra media codecs (both are options provided on the screen) over the internet. This will ensure that your OS is brand new and updated when installation finally finishes.

Just make sure that Ubuntu is ready to be installed and press the "Forward" button again to go to next step.

Step 3: In this step, Ubuntu will ask you how you want to install Ubuntu. It shows you three options:

Install Ubuntu alongside Windows 7: This is the most suitable option for us. When you select this option, Ubuntu looks into each partition, sees how much drive space is available and selects one which suits the best. Upon selecting it and pressing 'Forward', you will be allowed to set the amount of space you want to allocate for Ubuntu on the selected drive; usually it's the one with most amount of space available.

The screen which offer you to allot the space to Ubuntu by re-sizing the selected partition, will also provide a link to the advanced partitioning tool. It's the same screen that appears when you select the 'Something else' option.

Replace Windows 7 with Ubuntu: We don't want this. This will remove the contents of the Windows 7 partition. This may contain all your music, pictures, documents and videos kept in the default folders and Windows programs, along with the OS itself. Do this only if you really want to remove Windows.
Something else: This option will take you to the advanced partitioning tool. Using this tool, you can delete, resize and create new partitions. It's recommended (only) for advanced users who want more control over how much space is to be allocated to each Linux volume, file systems to be used and so on.

To use this option, you must be knowledgeable enough to understand the limitations of hard disk structures and file systems. Here are a few questions to help you determine whether you should be using this option or not:

Do you know that most computers use a partitioning style called MBR?
Did you know that there the sum of number of primary and extended partitions can't exceed 4?
Did you know that a new install requires a new partition and that primary partitions are more preferred for the /boot partition?
Did you know that resizing a NTFS partition can take a lot of time?
Do you understand the differences between the primary, extended and logical partitions?

If answers of all the questions above is 'yes', you might be a suitable candidate for using the advanced partitioning tool. If, however, any answer is a 'no', we suggest you allow Ubuntu to take a wiser decision by selecting "Install Ubuntu alongside Windows 7". Unless you are in a mood to experiment with partitioning and understand the fact that a failed experiment might result in total loss of data with an unbootable fate, you should select the first option and let Ubuntu take decisions on its own. Even if all the answers for the questions above are 'yes' but you still get stuck at some error or message shown by Ubuntu during partitioning, you should select the first option (Install Ubuntu alongside Windows 7) to let Ubuntu decide the best option.
If you are about to make the partitions yourself, do make sure that you allot about 1.5 to 3.0 times the installed RAM as swap area. Although lesser can also be used, allocating the swap area based on this calculation promises better performance.
Upon selection of the right choice and creating partitions, click on 'Install now' and installation will start straight away.
The rest of the steps are the same as for my previous post "How to install Ubuntu?". Mention them here for an easy reference.

Step 4: Choose your timezone and click 'Forward'.

Step 5: Select your keyboard layout.

Step 6: Enter your name, a username, password, machine name and choose auto login option.

Step 7: Wait while Ubuntu downloads the package list or skip the step and reboot the system after installation completes.
Upon following these steps, you will be able to boot into the Windows or Ubuntu by selecting one from the boot menu.

Sunday, September 8, 2013

THINGS YOU MUST KNOW WHILE INSTALLING UBUNTU AS A DUAL-BOOT SETUP

Installing as a dual-boot setup

If you are already using Windows, chances are high that you won't take a plunging leap by removing it and installing Ubuntu on your machine. You want to have the best of both worlds and will finally shift to Ubuntu only when you are satisfied that it will fit your needs. Till that day you'd use Windows and try out Ubuntu only for a change.

Any operating system requires a separate partition to be installed. This is the case because it might need files with the same name and path, and also because file systems might vary for different operating systems. While Ubuntu can read and write on Windows file systems (FAT32/ NTFS), it can't be installed on partitions formatted with any one of them. It's important that Ubuntu receives its own partition.

To partition or not to partition ?

There's something unique about Ubuntu. While it's mandatory for any OS have its own separate installation partition, Ubuntu can be installed as an application over Windows. Thanks to the brilliant Wubi and sister teams at Ubuntu who hard to create Wubi, the Windows installer for Ubuntu. With Wubi, you can install Ubuntu onto the current Windows installation just as another software application. It will bring Ubuntu into the Windows OS selection menu and you can boot into Ubuntu right from there. Easy and intuitive, isn't it?

However, there are a few problems with such a Wubi installation, which you should be aware of. Ubuntu installed via Wubi:

Doesn't start if Windows didn't shut down properly od if its installation volume wasn't clean upon a system reboot.
Will suffer disk performance, more so when the installation file gets fragmented.
Put you at the risk of a broken installation thanks to updates and corrupting the Windows bootloader at times (this is the most dangerous one).
Prevents you from hibernating your machine.

Apart from these small problems, installing Ubuntu using Wubi is great as it allows you to test it on your real machine without problems and also allows you to remove it just like any other program. No hassles of partitioning, resetting the bootloaders etc. In case you want to remove Ubuntu some days later, just head to the control panel and uninstall Ubuntu. Now that's what we call 'easy'.

However, if you don't want to face the problems mentioned above and still want to utilize and enjoy the experience Ubuntu promises you, partitioning is required. Don't fear, however, because it's not very difficult to do so. All you have to know are a few basic facts about Linux partitions.

What partitions to make

Before we get into details, let's talk about partitions required first. Linux, unlike Windows, can utilize more than one partitions to spread its contents and load. Although this is not mandatory, it allows you to extract better performance from the machine. The absolute requirement is the root partition which is denoted by ' / ' characters. All files on any other partition are made to reside within this partition alone. While Windows can allow you to have more than one 'drive' , Linux will give you the same functionality by putting the partition in different folders used as 'mount point' for those partitions (or volumes).
Aside from the / partition, Linux will also strongly recommend creating a swap partition which does the same work as that done by the Windows pagefile.sys C: drive. It allows the OS to run programs whose memory requirements exceed the available amount of RAM. While there is a way to use the Windows method (use a file instead of a partition for paging), it is recommended to use a separate partition for the swap. It's possible to make other partitions like /var (for storing files which change frequently), /boot (boot files like kernel, ramdisk image, boot menu files etc), /usr (for installing most programs; it's similar to the program files folder for Windows) and any other to make the Windows partitions (NTFS partitions) available under Linux. However they are neither mandatory nor strongly recommended. we will show you the Ubuntu installation alongside Windows (using Windows 7 as example on my next blog) with creation of root ( / )partition and a swap partition.

Ok then time is ticking, so will tell you the "Installation steps for a dual boot setup" on my next blog.. Thanks for reading, keep supporting....

HOW TO INSTALL UBUNDU ?

To use any Ubuntu operating system, you don't have to necessarily install it . Ubuntu can be used directly from a USB drive or a DVD. Just boot the computer with the media and you will find a usable desktop right away. However, a lot of functionality in the live mode is limited by the transfer speeds and space available on the USB drive. You can't store all the software on a USB stick. In case you are using a DVD or a CD as boot media, you are in a much restricted environment and won't be able to install new software. So although installation is not a requirement, it is certainly recommended as a method to enjoy your freedom to the fullest.
If you've got this far and are reading this very sentence, we believe you are already in a mood to pop in a Ubuntu disk and fire an installation procedure for Ubuntu under different conditions.

Installing Ubuntu as a standalone OS

If you want to use Windows on your PC, you will have to install it before Ubuntu. If you install Windows after Ubuntu, it will erase the bootloader created by Ubuntu. Although Ubuntu would still remain installed, it simply wouldn't be bootable! Windows doesn't add Ubuntu to its boot menu if it finds the Linux OS on the disk while being installed. Ubuntu, on the other hand acknowledges and respects the existence of Windows on a machine and adds it to its boot menu.

To install Ubuntu on a machine without any operating systems, follow the regular procedure: insert the boot media (CD/DVD/USB drive) and boot the computer with it. You'll eventually arrive at the Ubuntu desktop, which, as we've already said, is very much usable as a complete system in itself. Before beginning the installation, take a backup, so that our installation is beneficial and not harmful to us. On the desktop you'll find a shortcut to the installer (it's called ubiquity). Simply double-click it and the installer will pop up asking questions (we'll call them steps to install Ubuntu):

Step 1: Choose your language. Since you are reading this, we assume you'd choose "English" on that screen and press the "Forward" button.

Step 2: On the next screen, ubiquity will recommend system requirements and tell you whether your system meets them all or not. It basically shows you the following requirements:

4.4 GB disk space - This is perhaps the only stringent requirement by Ubuntu. You should make sure that your hard disk has at least that much space. Of course the bigger, the better.
Is connected to power source - This is not a very hardcore requirement. All Ubuntu wants to say here is: "please ensure power supply is not turned off when installing".
Is connected to internet - Although this too is not necessity, Ubuntu could use your internet connection to download updates and extra media codecs (both are options provided on the screen) over the internet. This will ensure that your OS is brand new and updated when installation finally finishes.

Just make sure that Ubuntu is ready to be installed and press the "Forward" button again to go to next step.

Step 3: In the next step, ubiquity will offer you two options: "Erase entire disk and install Ubuntu" and "Something else". Unless you have files which you'd like to have on disk, go with the first option. It tells Ubuntu to utilize the complete disk space and decide what's best for your system. Ubuntu will create its own root ( / ) partition, a swap partition and install itself on the " / " partition.
If however you have something to save, choose the 'Something else' option and that would get you to to a simple but powerful partition editor where you can choose the disk you want to partition (in case you have more than one)and then create or edit partitions on it. We've discussed more about this in the "Installation steps for a dual-boot setup" section where it's more relevant.
That's simple. Now click the obvious Forward button again. You'll be asked to confirm the settings once more. Then click on the 'Install now' button. Installer will disable its controls for some time while it formats the partitions for installation and then returns asking you another question.

Step 4: Installation at this point of time would already be running. While installation is still in progress, Ubuntu will ask you to enter information required after installation. This includes your time zone and country.

Step 5: Select your keyboard layout. If you are unsure, you can click the 'Detect keyboard layout' button and that would help you select the right one. In almost all cases it's the USA keyboard layout which we use. Click 'Forward'.

Step 6: Enter your name, your username (Ubuntu will automatically make your first name your username, through you can change it), computer's name (useful for a networked setup) and password for the user. Ubuntu will warn you if you choose a weak password. You can still use it. However, it's always good to have a stronger password (more than 8 characters, mixed case, special characters and digits included). You may also choose to automatically log in when the computer starts. Remember the password you enter here. Ubuntu will not offer you the luxury of forgetting it nor will it offer you a 'forget password' option.

Step 7: If you are connected to the internet, it will download the package list so that you are ready to install new software as and when you reboot. If you want, you can stop this process by clicking the 'Skip' button which reveals when you click on the line showing the current status. Oh, and if you'd allow Ubuntu to get the latest list of software, it will show you a slideshow of its best features by the time.

Step 8: There is no step 8. Ubuntu is installed. Just restart the system! Enjoy Ubuntu!
On my next blog tell u installing Ubuntu as a dual-boot setup..

Sunday, September 1, 2013

HOW TO SPEED UP YOUR PC ?

After repetitive frequent usage of a computer, system maintenance becomes absolutely necessary. It's required to increase the speed and efficiency of your system. There are many standalone single purpose computer maintenance software like registry cleaners, spyware and malware cleaners, uninstall managers, start up managers and disk space allocation managers. But incidentally all these software have only one primary goal, helping you optimize the performance of your computer to its maximum possible capabilities. Glary Utilities is a one-stop computer maintenance software that can do almost all of the tasks mentioned above. This software combines all computer maintenance tools into one simple, fast and friendly user interface.
Glary Utilities objective is to help you optimize, clean and speed up your Windows computer. All the tools in Glary Utilities are split up into five different categories depending on the function or job to be performed.

Clean up and Repair

The utilities offered under the Clean Up and Repair module are primarily tools to help you clean junk files and correct computer problems.

The Disk Cleaner is a tool which works better than the Window Disk Clean-up function and lets you remove all the junk data contained in your disks. It also helps in recovering disk space by getting rid of the useless temporary files which might be clogging your disk space.
The Registry Cleaner tool cleans up and deletes all unwanted registry entries of malware or uninstalles software which might be slowing down your system. To prevent any unwanted results, it also lets you backup the deleted entries which can be recovered at a later date if required.
The Shortcuts fixer tool scans through your entire computer for shortcut files which might need to be fixed and point to a different locations. It also detects shortcuts which no longer are valid and lets you delete them from your system.
The Uninstall Manager works like the Windows Ass and Remove Programs but it has better features, including the ability to let you uninstall Windows program one by one or in a batch.

Optimize and Improve

The tools present in the Optimize and Improve module can be used to improve the speed and performance level of the machine.

The Startup Manager gives you a list of all the programs which are scheduled to launch and start immediately after you switch on your computer and your operating system is loaded. You can remove or add Windows startup entries for a more efficient startup.
The Memory Optimizer tool lets you any free or unused memory quickly, in manual or automatic mode. Simply indicate the amount of memory you want to free up and then click "Optimize" to free up that much memory which we made available for immediate usage.It also shows you a graph of the physical memory usage.
The Context Menu Manager manages the context menu entries for the files and folders on your computer. It can be used to remove useless or obtrusive right-click menu entries for any particular file type in windows.
The Registry Defrag tool, just like the windows disk defragmenter which defragments files on disk to speed up disk usages, lets you defragment your registry for faster system performance.

Privacy and Security

This module provides the user with the tools to secure and keep their system privacy intact.

The Track Eraser helps you maintain your privacy and remove any traces and details of your internet usage and surfing history. It cleans all the cookies, history files, temporary internet files, the cache of your browsers and other internet tracks including the Flash Player history.
The File Shredder tool can be used for secure, unrecoverable deletion of files and folders, With normal deletion of files, even after the removal of files from the Recycle Bin it's possible to recover them using other software but with this tool you can completely delete files and make them non-recoverable. Apart from this, you can also wipe free disk space for extra privacy.
The File Undelete lets you recover any files that you might have accidentally deleted in the recent past and if there's no record of it on your file index. You can do this in a more organised way using the different available filters like drive, date, state of recovery and more.
The File Encrypter and Decrypter tool can be used to protect files or folders from prying eyes by encrypting the files which would require a password to open. Additional features include having a password int field in case you forgot the decryption password.

Files and Folders

The Files and Folders module provides you with tools to analyse and find items from different disks or folders on your system.

The Disk Analysis tool lets you check which files or folders in your system occupy the largest disk spaces, so you can sort through and better organise your disk or simply locate and delete large files in case you run out of disk space.
The Duplicate File Finder finds multiple copies of the same file on your system and lets you delete the extra copies in case you need to reduce redundancy and free up disk space.
The Empty Folder Finder finds folders on your system which don't contain any files in them so that you can delete them if required.
The File Splitter and Joiner is a tool that lets you make a big file portable. This is very useful for sharing large files over the internet, you can upload or email smaller parts as attachments which can again be joined by the other user who you had intended to share the file with.

Wednesday, August 21, 2013

Photoshop Keyboard Shortcuts

Do you know how easy will be photoshop when we start using shourtcut key. Here is some shortcut keys that simplfy your photoshop work.

TOOLS

Add mode (Shape tools) +

Subtract mode (Shape tools) –

Lock transparency pixels (on / off) /

Decrease brush size [

Increase brush size ]

Decrease brush hardness by 25% Shift+ [

Increase brush hardness by 25% Shift+ ]

Previous brush ,

Next brush .

First brush Shift+ ,

Last brush Shift+ .

Tool opacity 10% ® 100% 1 → 0

Flow 10% → 100% Shift+1 → 0

Path / Direct Selection tools A

Brush / Pencil / Color Replacement tools B

N Crop / Slice / Slice Selection tools C

Default Foreground and Background Colors D

Eraser / Background Eraser / Magic Eraser E

Gradient / Paint Bucket tools G

N Hand tool (bird's eye view) H

N Eyedropper / Sampler / Ruler / Note / Count I

Spot Healing / Healing / Patch / Red Eye J

3D Rotate / Roll / Pan / Slide / Scale tools K

Lasso / Polygonal Lasso / Magnetic Lasso L

Rectangular / Elliptical Marquee tools M

3D Orbit tools (Roll View / Pan View / etc.) N

Dodge / Burn / Sponge tools O

Pen / Freeform Pen tools P

Edit in Quick Mask Mode (on / off) Q

Rotate View tool R

Clone / Pattern Stamp tools S

Type tools (Horiz / Vert / Horiz Mask / Vert Mask) T

Shape tools (Rect / Round Rect / Ellipse / etc.) U

Move tool V

Quick Selection / Magic Wand tools W

Switch Foreground and Background Colors X

History / Art History Brush tools Y

Zoom tool Z

Hand tool (toggle) Space

Zoom In (toggle) Ctrl+Space

Zoom Out (toggle) Alt+Space

Cycle Path / Direct Selection tools Shift+A

Cycle Brush / Pencil / Color Replacement tools Shift+B

Cycle Crop / Slice / Slice Selection tools Shift+C

Cycle Eraser tools Shift+E

Cycle Gradient / Paint Bucket tools Shift+G

Cycle Eyedropper / Sampler / Ruler / Note / Count Shift+ I

Cycle Spot / Healing / Patch / Red Eye tools Shift+J

Cycle 3D Rotate / Roll / Pan / Slide / Scale Shift+K

Cycle Lasso tools Shift+L

Cycle Rectangular / Elliptical Marquee tools Shift+M

Cycle 3D Orbit tools (Roll View / Pan View / etc.) Shift+N

Cycle Dodge / Burn / Sponge tools Shift+O

Cycle Pen / Freeform Pen tools Shift+P

Cycle Clone / Pattern Stamp tools Shift+S

Cycle Type tools Shift+T

Cycle Shape tools (Rect / Round Rect / etc.) Shift+U

Cycle Quick Selection / Magic Wand tools Shift+W

Cycle History / Art History Brush tools Shift+Y

Airbrush (with Brush tools selected) Alt+Shift+P

HOW TO REFILL INK CARTRIDGES

Step 1:

Remove cartridge from printer. Remove the identification label from the top of the cartridge.

Step 2:

Assemble the syringe and needle, pierce the bottle seal and fill with the correct ink colour. I recommend filling these cartridges with a maximum of 5ml of ink due to the fact that the majority of them are physically restricted on the inside.

STEP 3:

Insert the needle into the appropriate fill hole and push down into the cartridge slowly. Ensure you are filling the correct chamber with the correct colour ink. When the ink appears the filling hole, pull back the syringe plunger slightly to remove the excess ink. Blot the printhead with absorbent material until it stops dripping before moving onto the next colour.

Step 4:

Finishing all colours apply label or tape. Ensure the printhead has stopped dripping before returning the cartridge to the printer. Operate the printers cleaning cycle 1 to 3 times. Clean the syringe and needle thoroughly with water for future use.

Sunday, August 18, 2013

CELLULAR CONCEPT

Cellular Concept

Traditional mobile service was structured similar to television broadcasting: One very
powerful transmitter located at the highest spot in an area would broadcast in a radius of
up to fifty kilometers. The Cellular concept structured the mobile telephone network in a
different way. Instead of using one powerful transmitter many low-powered transmitter
were placed through out a coverage area. For example, by dividing metropolitan region
into one hundred different areas (cells) with low power transmitters using twelve
conversation (channels) each, the system capacity could theoretically be increased from
twelve conversations using one hundred low power transmitters.
The cellular concept employs variable low power levels, which allows cells to be
sized according to subscriber density and demand of a given area. As the populations
grows, cells can be added to accommodate that growth. Frequencies used in one cell
cluster can be reused in other cells. Conversations can be handed over from cell to cell to
maintain constant phone service as the user moves between cells.
The cellular system design was pioneered by during’70s by Bell Laboratories in
the United States, and the initial realization was known as AMPS (Advanced Mobile
Phone Service). The AMPS cellular service was available in United States in 1983.
AMPS is essentially generation 1 analog cellular system in contrast to generation 2
digital cellular systems of GSM and CDMA (1S-95).
Cells :
A cell is the basic geographic unit of cellular system. The term cellular
comes from the honeycomb areas into which a coverage region is divided. Cells are base
stations transmitting over small geographic areas that are represented as hexagons. Each
cell size varies depending upon landscape. Because of constraint imposed by natural
terrain and man-made structures, the true shape of cell is not a perfect hexagon.
A group of cells is called a cluster. No frequencies are reused in a cluster.
Features of Digital Cellular Systems:

n Small cells

n Frequency reuse
n Small, battery-powered
handsets
n Performance of
handovers

Cellular System Characteristics

General

characteristics of digital cellular systems Cellular radio systems allow the subscriber to place and receive
telephone calls over the wire-line telephone network where ever cellular coverage is provided. Roaming capabilities extend service to users traveling outside their “outside” home service areas.
The distinguishing features of digital cellular systems compared to other
mobile radio systems are:

characteristics of digital

Small cells

cellular systems
A cellular system uses many base stations with relatively small
coverage radii (on the order of a 100 m to 30 km).

Frequency reuse

The spectrum allocated for a cellular network is limited. As a result
there is a limit to the number of channels or frequencies that can be
used. For this reason each frequency is used simultaneously by
multiple base-mobile pairs. This frequency reuse allows a much
higher subscriber density per MHz of spectrum than other systems.
System capacity can be further
increased by reducing the cell size (the coverage area of a single base
station), down to radii as small as 200 m.

Small, battery-powered handsets In addition to supporting much

higher densities than previous systems, this approach enables the use
of small, battery-powered handsets with a radio frequency that is
lower than the large mobile units used in earlier systems.

Performance of handovers

In cellular systems, continuous coverage is achieved by executing a “handover”
(the seamless transfer of the call from one base station to another) as the mobile
unit crosses cell boundaries. This requires the mobile to change frequencies
under control of the cellular network.

BROAD BAND SERVICES

Overview of Broad Band Services

The confluence of two forces—the globalization of business and the networking of
information technology—has created the Internet economy. Advances in
telecommunications and data technology are creating new opportunities for countries,
businesses and individuals—just as the Industrial Revolution changed fortunes
around the globe. The new economy is defining how people do business,
communicate , shop, have fun, learn, and live on a global basis—connecting anyone
to anything. The evolution of Internet has come into existence & Internet service is
expanding rapidly. The demands it has placed upon the public network, especially the
access network, are great. However, technological advances promise big increases in
access speeds, enabling public networks to play a major role in delivering new and
improved telecommunications services and applications to consumers .The Internet
and the network congestion that followed, has led people to focus both on the first and
last mile as well as on creating a different network infrastructure to avoid the network
congestion and access problems. The solution to this is Broadband.
Broadband indicates a means of connectivity at a high or ‘broad’ bandwidth, which is
capable of delivering multiple services simultaneously. It generally refers to
transmission of data over numerous frequencies. There were no uniform standards for
Broadband connectivity and various countries followed various standards. Recently
ITU had stepped in and has defined Broadband. According to International
Telecommunication Union Broadband is defined as “Transmission capacity that is
faster than primary rate ISDN, at 1.5 to 2 Mb/s” But in developing countries, as the
average financial capability as well as usage, is low, broadband is redefined.
Recognizing the potential of ubiquitous Broadband service in growth of GDP and
enhancement in quality of life through societal applications including tele-education,
tele-medicine, e-governance, entertainment as well as employment generation by way
of high speed access to information and web-based communication, Government of
India have finalised a policy to accelerate the growth of Broadband services.
Broadband Policy 2004 defines Broadband as “An ‘always-on’ data connection
supporting interactive services including, – Internet access and has the
capability of the minimum download speed of 256 kilo bits per second (kbps) to
an individual subscriber from the Point Of Presence (POP) of the service
provider”.
–The interactive services will exclude any services for which a separate licence is
specifically required, for example, real-time voice transmission, except to the extent
that it is presently permitted under ISP licence with Internet Telephony.

Features of Broadband

· Fast connection to the Internet

Access to the services which would otherwise be impossible on a slower
dial up connection. These include facilities such as downloading music
or video footage, listening to your favourite radio station or downloading
(or sending) large attached files with emails.

· “Always-on” connection

means that you are permanently connected to the internet;hence no
need to dial up a connection every time you want to surf the web, send
email, etc.

· Flat-rate billing

if you choose an uncapped rate there will be no additional charges for
the time you are online.You can use it as much or as little as you would
like, for a fixed fee. Some connections are available at a lower cost, but
limit you to the amount of data being downloaded (known as 'capped
rate').

· Dedicated connection

Simultaneous use of both telephone & data line.
Broadband Services

· High speed Internet

means that you are permanently connected to the internet, and don't
need to dial up a connection every time you want to surf the web, send
email, etc.

· Video on Demand

Enables the user to select from an online library of content and select
any of the available choices for viewing at a convenient time with full
DVD like controls. This is similar to borrowing a Video for viewing.

· Video Multicasting

Similar to cable or terrestrial broadcast – the user can join at any time
but the stream begins and ends at the preappointed times.
· Interactive Gaming
Enables multiple players to play online games pitted against each other
or against computers, through gaming servers employed by gaming
content providers.

· Audio and Video Conferencing

Share ideas, information, and applications using video or audio.

· Distant Learning

Consists of electronic classrooms with 2-way and multi-way
communication among teachers and students.
All these services require the service provider to have tie-ups with the various content
providers.

Network Architecture of Broadband

Network architecture can be broadly classified into three categories:
1. Last mile connecting the subscriber – Access Network
2. Metro Area Network comprising of Core Network. NIB II Backbone supporting
Multi Service Platform
3. Service Provisioning Equipment at the Provider’s Premises.

Broadband Access Technology

Broadband access technology is broadly classified into two categories. They are
Wired Line & Wireless which is further classified as given below. Wireline
technologies include traditional telephone lines, coaxial cable lines, and fiber optic
lines. Wireless communications involve cellular and fixed wireless technology, high
speed short range communications and satellite transmission.
Wireless Wireline
3G Mobile DSL (Digital Sub’s Line)
Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) Cable Modem
WiMAX Optical Fibre Technologies
LMDS & MMDS PLC (Power Line Communication)
FSO (Free Space Optics)
Satellite
For utilizing the existing copper cable, we have adopted DSL Technology.
Because physical infrastructure and geography are vastly different from country to
country, technology that works well in one geographic area may not work as well
in another. Therefore, it is up to each individual locality to determine the
technologies that best meet its needs. To handle the increasing bandwidth
demand, localities are considering upgrading their current telecommunications
infrastructure or installing new infrastructure. It is essential that communities and
operators consider the present and future needs of their citizens when examining
the most appropriate systems. Broadband should be considered an accelerator of
economic development .
Factors affecting Broadband Access Choices
o Population density
o Existing infrastructure (e.g., twisted pair, cable, fiber)
o Government policies
o Competitive and regulatory dynamics
o Technology evolution
o Applications of Broadband
· Basic WWW browsing and Email access
· Run Servers (Web / FTP)
· Business tariff, can depend on company
· Some technologies are asymmetric (cable, ADSL)
· Video On Demand (VOD)
· Audio Streams (Internet Radio)
· Fast File Transfers (Possibility of downloading large files in short period of
time)
Comparative study for various applications using different technologies.
Application Dialup
Modem
ISDN ADSL Cable
Modem
Download Webpage 14secs 6 secs 1.6 secs 1.6 secs
Download 30 sec Video Clip 3.5 mins 1.5 mins 0.4 mins 0.4 mins
Download Single mp3 file 12 mins 5 mins 1.3 mins 1.3 mins
Download 10mb File 24 mins 10 mins 2.5 mins 2.5 mins
Farm
Homes
GigE Fiber MDU
Cable modem
Twisted pair DSL
Satellite
City: High-rise multifamily
units
Suburbs:
Individual singlefamily
units
Rural: isolated
single family unit

WHAT IS NETWORKING ?

Here is some information to my little brothers who new to IT Profession. Did any one know exactly what a networking is ? types of network ? how network help us ?

A network is nothing more than two or more computers connected to each

other so that they can exchange information, such as:

- e-mail messages or documents,

- Share resources, such as disk storage or printers.

The connection may be via electrical cables that carry electrical signals,

or fiber-optic cables by using impulses of light. Wireless networks let

computers communicate by using radio signals.

A network, in addition to special hardware, also requires special software

to enable communications. Network support is built into all major

operating systems, including all current versions of Windows, Macintosh

operating systems and Linux.

- Client Computers

- Server Computers

- Network Interface Cards (NIC)

- Cables

- Hubs & Switches

- Wireless Networks

- Network Software

Client Computers

The computers that end-users use to access the resources of the network.

8They usually run a desktop version of Windows along with application

software such as Microsoft Office. Sometimes referred to as

WORKSTATIONS.

Server Computers

Computers that provide shared resources, such as disk storage and

printers, as well as network services, such as e-mail and Internet access.

Server computers typically run a specialized Network Operating System

(NOS) such as Windows 2000 Server, NetWare, or Linux along with special

software to provide network services.

For example, a server may run Microsoft Exchange to provide e-mail

services for the network, or it may run Apache Web Server so that the

computer can serve Web pages.

Network Interface Cards (NIC)

A card installed in a computer that enables the computer to communicate

over a network. Almost all NICs implement a networking standard called

ETHERNET. Every client and every server computer must have NIC (or

built-in network port) in order to be a part of the network.

Cables

Computers in a network are usually physically connected to each other

using cable. The most commonly used cable today is called Twisted Pair,

also known as 10BaseT. Another type of cable commonly used is Coaxial.

For high-speed network connections, fiber-optic cable is used.

Hubs & Switches

Each computer in a network is connected by cable to a device known as a

hub or switch. The hub or switch in turn, connects to the rest of the

network. Each hub or switch contains a certain number of ports, typically

8 or 16. Hubs and Switches can be connected to each other to build larger

networks.

Wireless Networks

In many networks, cables and hubs are making way for wireless network

connections, which enables computers to communicate via radio signals.

In a wireless network, radio transmitters and receivers take the place of

cables.

Advantage: Flexibility

Disadvantage: It is inherently less secure than a cabled network.

Network Software

What really makes a network work is software. Server computers typically

use special Network Operating System (NOS) in order to function

efficiently. Client computers need to have their network settings

configured properly in order to access the network.

Why Networking?

Networks are all about sharing. Specifically, networks are about sharing

three things: INFORMATION, RESOURCES & APPLICATIONS.

Sharing Information

Networks allow users to share information in several different ways. The

most common way of sharing information is to share individual files. In

addition to sharing files, networks allow users to communicate with each

other in various ways. Example: Messaging applications like Microsoft

Outlook. Users can also hold online meetings over the network. 8With

inexpensive Video Cameras and the right software, users can hold

videoconferences over the network.

Sharing Resources

Certain computer resources, such as printers or hard drives, can be set up

so that network users can share them. Providing users with access to a

shared hard drive is the most common method of sharing files on a

network.

A computer whose main purpose is to host shared hard drives is called a

File Server. A network can be used to share an Internet connection.

Sharing Application

Networking businesses allow several users to work together on a single

business application. 8For example: An accounting department may have

accounting software that can be used from several computers at the same

time.

SERVERS & CLIENTS

Only two kinds of computers are on a network: Servers & Clients. The

network computer that contains the hard drive, printers and other

resources that are shared with other network computers is called a Server.

Any computer that’s not a server is called a Client.

Dedicated Servers & Peers

In some networks, a server computer is a server computer and nothing

else. This server computer is dedicated solely to the task of providing

shared resources, such as hard drives and printers, to be accessed by the

network client computers. Such a server is referred to as a dedicated

server because it can perform no other tasks besides network services. A

network that relies on dedicated servers is sometimes called a

client/server network.

Other networks take an alternative approach, enabling any computer on

the network to function as both a client and a server. Thus, any computer

can share its printers and hard drives with other computers on the

network. 8While a computer is working as a server, you can still use that

same computer for other functions such as word processing. This type of

network is called a peer-to-peer network because all the computers are

thought of as peers, or equals. Peer-to-peer networking features are built

into all current versions of Windows since Windows 95. Hence you don’t

have to buy any additional software to turn your computer into a server.

All you have to do is to enable the Windows Server features.

The network server features that are built into desktop versions of

Windows (such as Windows XP) aren’t very efficient because these

versions of Windows were not designed primarily to be network servers.

Hence you should use a full-fledged Network Operating System, such as

Windows 2000 Server.

Network Categorization

Based on the geographical size, its ownership, the distance it covers and

its physical architecture, networks can be categorized as:

- LAN: Local Area Network

- MAN: Metropolitan Area Network

- WAN: Wide Area Network

LAN

Computers are relatively close together, such as within the same office or

building. LAN can extend to several buildings on a campus – provided the

buildings are close to each other.

WAN

A network that spans a large geographical territory, such as an entire city,

region, or even an entire country. WANs are typically used to connect two

or more LANs that are relatively far apart.

MAN

A network that that’s smaller than a typical WAN but larger than a LAN.

Typically, a MAN connects two or more LANs within a same city but are far

enough apart that the networks can’t be connected using a simple cable

or wireless connection.

Network Topology

The term network topology refers to the shape of how the computers and

other network components are connected to

each other. Several different types of network

topologies:

- Bus Topology

- Star Topology

- Ring Topology

- Mesh Topology

Two Important Terms

NODE: is a device that is connected to the network.

PACKET: is a message that is sent over the network from one node to

another node.

Bus Topology

In this, the nodes are strung

together in a line. Commonly used

for LANs. Every node on the

network can see every packet that

is sent on the cable. If the cable in

a bus network breaks, the network is effectively divided into two

networks.

Star Topology

Each network node is connected to a

central device called a hub or a

switch. Also commonly used for LANs.

If a cable in a star network breaks,

only the node connected to that

cable is isolated from the network.

The other nodes can continue to

operate, unless, the node that is

isolated happens to be the File

Server.

Hub & Switch

A hub doesn’t know anything about the computers that are connected to

each of its ports. A switch knows which computer is connected to each of

its ports. Strictly speaking, only networks that use switches have a true

star topology. If the network uses a hub, the network topology has the

physical appearance of a star, but is actually a bus.

Ring Topology

Packets are sent around the circle from

computer to computer. Each computer looks

at each packet to decide whether the packet

was intended for it. If not, the packet is

passed on to the next computer in the ring.

Years ago, ring topologies were common in LANs, as two popular

networking technologies used rings: ARCNET and Token Ring. ARCNET is

still used for certain applications such as factory automation. Token Ring

is a popular network technology for IBM mid-range computers.

Mesh Topology

Mesh Topology has multiple connections between each of the nodes on the

network. Advantage: If one cable breaks, the network can use an

alternative route to deliver its packets. Mesh networks are not very

practicable in LAN setting. Mesh networks are common for metropolitan

or wide area networks. These networks use devices called routers to route packets from network to network. Routers are usually arranged to provide multiple paths between any two nodes.

The Downside of Networking

After you hook your computer up to a network, it’s not a Personal

Computer anymore. You are now part of a network of Computers. 8Two

disadvantages of using a network: the loss of user independence and the

need for network management.

Network Administration

At least one person should be designated as the Network Manager (also

called Network Administrator). He is responsible for making sure that the

network doesn’t fall apart or get out of control.

Manager’s Job

- To make sure that plenty of space is available on the File

Server

- To back up the File Server regularly

- To allow new employees access the network

- To solve basic problems that the users can’t themselves

solve

- To call in an expert when something really bad happens

UNDERSTANDING PROTOCOLS & STANDARDS

Understanding Protocols

Protocols & Standards are what make networks work together. Protocols

make it possible for the various components of a network to communicate

with each other. Standards also make it possible for network components

manufactured by different companies to work together.

A protocol is a set of rules that enable effective communications to occur.

Computer networks depend upon many different types of protocols, which

are very rigidly defined, in order to work. Various protocols tend to be

used together in matched sets called protocol suites.

The two most popular protocol suites for networking are: TCP/IP

(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol) and IPX/SPX (Internet

Packet Exchange/ Sequenced Packet Exchange). TCP/IP was originally

developed for UNIX networks and is the protocol for the Internet. IPX/SPX

was originally developed for NetWare networks and is still widely used for

Windows networks. A third important protocol is Ethernet, a low-level

protocol that’s used with both TCP/IP and IPX/SPX.

Understanding Standards

A Standard is an agreed-upon definition of a protocol. Standards are

industry-wide protocol definitions that are not tied to a particular

manufacturer. Many organizations are involved in setting standards for

networking.

- ANSI: American National Standards Institute

- IEEE: Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers

- ISO: International Organization for Standardization

- IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force

- W3C: World Wide Web Consortium

OSI Reference Model

Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model is a framework into which

the various networking standards can fit. Open Systems Interconnection

Reference Model is a standard of standards. The OSI Model breaks the

various aspects of a computer network into seven distinct layers.

Layers Functions

APPLICATION File Transfer, e-mail, Remote login etc.

PRESENTATION ASCII Text, Sound

SESSION Establish/ Manage Connection

TRANSPORT End-to-End Communication: TCP

NETWORK Routing, Addressing: IP

DTA LINK Two party communication: Ethernet

PHYSICAL How to transmit signal: Coding

Ethernet Protocol

The most popular set of protocols for the Physical and Data Link layers is

Ethernet. The Ethernet is defined by the IEEE standard known as 802.3.

The actual transmission speed of Ethernet is measured in Mbps.

Ethernet comes in three different speed versions:

- Standard Ethernet - 10-Mbps

- Fast Ethernet – 100-Mbps

- Gigabit Ethernet – 1-Gbps (or 1000-Mbps)

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The TCP/IP, the protocol on which the Internet is built, is actually not a

single protocol but rather an entire suite of related protocols. The TCP/IP

suite is based on a four-layered model of networking that is similar to the

seven-layer OSI Model.

TCP/IP Layers & Functions

APPLICATION LAYER

TRANSPORT LAYER

INTERNETWORK LAYER

NETWORK ACCESS LAYER

IPX/SPX Protocol Suite

Novell originally developed the IPX/SPX suite in the 1980s for use with

their NetWare Servers. 8IPX/SPX also works with all Microsoft Operating

Systems, with OS/2, and even with Unix and Linux.

IPX stands for Internet Package Exchange. It’s a Network layer protocol

that’s analogous to IP. SPX stands for Sequenced Package Exchange. It’s a

Transport layer protocol that’s analogous to TCP. Unlike TCP/IP, IPX/SPX

is not a standard protocol established by a standards group, such as IEEE.

Instead, IPX/SPX is a proprietary standard developed and owned by Novell.

Both IPX and IPX/SPX are registered trademarks of Novell.

Other Protocols Worth Knowing About

NetBIOS: Network Basic Input Output System

NetBEUI: Network BIOS Extended User Interface

AppleTalk: Apple Computers have their own suite of network

protocols known as AppleTalk

SNA: Systems Network Architecture is an IBM networking architecture

used with Mainframe computers

UNDERSTANDING NETWORK HARDWARE

The building blocks of networks are network hardware devices such as

servers, adapter cards, cables, hubs, switches, routers, and so on.

Servers

Server computers are the lifeblood of any network. Servers provide the

shared resources that network users crave, such as file storage, databases,

e-mail, Web services, and so on. For a home network or a small office

network with only a few computers, you can get away with true peer-topeer

networking. That’s where each client computer shares its resources

such as file storage or printers, and a dedicated server computer is not

needed.

Some general things to keep in mind when picking a server computer for

your network:

- Scalability

- Reliability

- Availability

- Service and Support

Server Form Factors

The term Form Factor refers to the size, shape, and packaging of a

hardware device. Server computers typically come in one of the three

form factors:

- Tower Case

- Rack Mount

- Blade Servers

Network Interface Cards (NIC)

Every computer on a network, both clients and servers, requires a network

interface card (NIC) in order to access the network. A NIC is usually a

separate adapter card that slides into one of the motherboard expansion

slots. However, some motherboards have a built-in network interface, so a

separate card isn’t required. Most NICs made today work with both 10Mbps

and 100Mbps UTP networks (that is, 10BaseT and 100BaseT) and are called

10/100 Cards.

Network Cable

We can construct an Ethernet network by using one of two different types

of cables:

- Coaxial Cable

- Twisted Pair Cable (UTP/ 10BaseT)

Hubs & Switches

The biggest difference between using coaxial cable and twisted-pair cable

is that when you use twisted-pair cable, you must also use a separate

device called a hub. A switch is simply a more sophisticated type of hub.

Repeaters

A Repeater is a device that gives your network signals a boost so that the

signals can travel farther. You need a repeater when the total length of a

single span of network cable is larger than the maximum allowed for the

cable type:

Cable Maximum Length

10Base2 (Coaxial) 185 metres

10/100BaseT (Twisted Pair) 100 metres

1.3.6 Bridges

A bridge is a device that connects two networks so that they act as if they

are one network. Bridges are used to partition one large network into two

smaller networks for performance reasons.

Routers

A router is like a bridge, but with a key difference. Bridges are Data Link

layer devices. A router is a Network layer device. A router is itself a node

on the network, with its own MAC and IP addresses.

UNDERSTANDING NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS

All network operating systems, from the simplest (such as Windows XP

Home Edition) to the most complex (such as Windows Server 2003), must

provide certain core functions.

Some of the core NOS features are:

- Network Support

- File Sharing Services

- Multitasking

- Directory Services

- Security Services

Microsoft Server Operating System

Microsoft currently supports three versions of flagship Server Operating

System:

- Windows NT Server

- Windows 2000 Server

- Windows Server 2003

Windows NT4 Server

Windows NT was a 32-bit processing, a huge step up from the 16-bit

processing of earlier versions of Windows. Windows NT was the first

Microsoft Operating System that was reliable enough to work as a network

server on large networks. Version 4.0 was shipped in July 1996.

Windows 2000 Server

Windows 2000 Server is currently the most popular server Operating

System from Microsoft. ØWindows 2000 Server, built on the strengths of

Windows NT Server, is faster, easier to manage, more reliable, and easier

to use for large and small networks alike.

Windows 2000 Server comes in three versions:

- Windows 2000 Server

- Windows 2000 Advanced Server

- Windows 2000 Datacenter Server

Windows Server 2003

Microsoft had just released a new version of Windows Server called

Windows Server 2003. For several years prior to its release, this new

version was called Windows .NET Server. Windows Server 2003 was built

on Windows 2000 Server with added features.

Windows Server 2003 comes in Four versions:

- Windows Server 2003, Standard Edition

- Windows Server 2003, Web Edition

- Windows Server 2003, Enterprise Edition

- Windows Server 2003, Datacenter Edition

Novell NetWare

NetWare is one of the most popular network operating systems, especially

for large networks. NetWare has an excellent reputation for reliability.

NetWare released the first version of NetWare in 1983.

The NetWare Versions are:

- Novell NetWare Version 3.x

- Novell NetWare Version 4.x

- Novell NetWare Version 3.x

- Novell NetWare Version 6

- Novell NetWare Version 6.5 (Released in 2003)

Other Server Operating Systems

Two other Server choices are:

- Linux

- Apple Mac OS/X Server

Linux is a free Operating System that is based on UNIX, a powerful

network operating system often used on large networks. Today, Linux is a

full-featured version of UNIX and can be an excellent choice as a Server

Operating System.

For Macintosh Networks, Apple offers a special network server Operating

System known as Mac OS/X Server. Mac OS/X Server has all the features of

a server operating system: file and printer sharing, Internet features, email,

and so on.

Pages

Sunday, December 8, 2013

Thursday, December 5, 2013

Tuesday, December 3, 2013

Monday, December 2, 2013

Sunday, December 1, 2013

Sunday, September 15, 2013

Installation steps for a dual boot setup

Sunday, September 8, 2013

Installing as a dual-boot setup

To partition or not to partition ?

What partitions to make

Installing Ubuntu as a standalone OS

Sunday, September 1, 2013

Clean up and Repair

Optimize and Improve

Privacy and Security

Files and Folders

Wednesday, August 21, 2013

Step 1:

Step 2:

STEP 3:

Step 4:

Sunday, August 18, 2013

Cellular Concept

Cellular System Characteristics

Overview of Broad Band Services

Features of Broadband

· Fast connection to the Internet

· “Always-on” connection

· Flat-rate billing

· Dedicated connection

· High speed Internet

· Video on Demand

· Video Multicasting

· Audio and Video Conferencing

· Distant Learning

Network Architecture of Broadband

Broadband Access Technology

Here is some information to my little brothers who new to IT Profession. Did any one know exactly what a networking is ? types of network ? how network help us ?

Client Computers

Server Computers

Network Interface Cards (NIC)

Cables

Hubs & Switches

Wireless Networks

Network Software

Why Networking?

SERVERS & CLIENTS

Network Categorization

LAN

WAN

MAN

Network Topology

Bus Topology

Star Topology

Hub & Switch

Ring Topology

Mesh Topology

The Downside of Networking

Network Administration

UNDERSTANDING PROTOCOLS & STANDARDS

Understanding Protocols

Understanding Standards

OSI Reference Model

Layers Functions

Ethernet Protocol

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

TCP/IP Layers & Functions

IPX/SPX Protocol Suite

Other Protocols Worth Knowing About

UNDERSTANDING NETWORK HARDWARE

Network Interface Cards (NIC)

Network Cable

Hubs & Switches

Repeaters

Routers

UNDERSTANDING NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS

Microsoft Server Operating System

Windows NT4 Server